What is an Inference?

What is an inference? An inference is a process of deduction that involves using existing information to make educated guesses about missing pieces of information. People use inference all the time in daily life: it is the process of extrapolating information. For example, if it is the middle of winter and there is snow on the ground, one might infer that a coat is needed before going outside, as it is likely to be cold. Inferences allow people to arrive at logical conclusions based on evidence. In literature, an inference definition involves something learned through a combination of a reader’s knowledge, historical context, and what is known of the author.

The Importance of Making Inferences

Making inferences is a very important part of reading. Writers will often deliberately leave out some information and require readers to infer what is missing based on the evidence. This keeps audiences engaged with the story. A book where no inferences were required at all would likely be extremely dull to read because it would explicitly state every detail for the audience.

When a writer obliges readers to make inferences, they are giving the audience clues as to what is going to happen. Figuring these clues out and using them to make inferences about the plot and characters is one of the pleasures of reading. Understanding what an author is trying to communicate is also called finding the intended meaning in a story. When reading a story, it can be helpful to look for what the author is trying to communicate to the audience, or explore the work’s intended meaning. What is the difference between ”infer” vs ”imply?” A reader might infer something that an author implied: inference is the interpretation of implication.

Skills Involving Inference

Understanding how to make inferences is a primary part of critical thinking and is important in a number of different careers. Skills and jobs that require the ability to infer information include but are not limited to:

• All branches of science
• Philosophy
• Medicine
• Teaching
• Writing
• Designing

Inferences in Arguments

Inferences are key in making arguments. Taking information and extrapolating it to come to a conclusion is the basic format of many formal essays. Understanding how to infer information and consequences from pieces of evidence is a great way to improve one’s ability to create, develop, and present formal arguments and essays.

Difference Between Inferences and Assumptions

One important thing to keep in mind is that inferences are not the same thing as assumptions. Assumptions are not logically created by existing information but instead seek to provide new information. They may involve biases and may not tell the whole story. Causal inferences, on the other hand, are logical conclusions drawn from reasoned interpretations of evidence.

Making Inferences: Examples

Writers expect their readers to make inferences in many famous works of literature. Some works that require readers to make inferences include Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway, The Charioteer by Mary Renault, and Othello by William Shakespeare.

Inferences in Moby-Dick

The famous opening line of Moby-Dick is ”Call me Ishmael.” The names that authors choose for their characters are very important, and this is especially true of Ishmael, which is a biblical name. Readers of Moby-Dick can infer from the name ”Ishmael” that the protagonist has been cast out of his home and may be a wanderer. Melville expects his readers to know who Ishmael the biblical character is and to be able to infer that the Ishmael in Moby-Dick likely shares some or all of his major traits.

Inferences in To Kill a Mockingbird

Because To Kill a Mockingbird is told from the perspective of a child, it is full of information that can lead audiences to infer things about Scout, her family, and her town. Early on in the book, Scout and several other characters are discussing Boo Radley, the reclusive man who lives nearby. Consider the following quote:

”Nobody knew what form of intimidation Mr. Radley employed to keep Boo out of sight, but Jem figured that Mr. Radley kept him chained to the bed most of the time. Atticus said no, it wasn’t that sort of thing, that there were other ways of making people into ghosts.”

Scout does not know what Atticus is referring to, but adult readers can infer that he is talking about pervasive emotional abuse of some kind. This passage also allows readers to infer that Atticus is an astute observer of people and that he keeps some more difficult information from his children.

Inferences in The Sun Also Rises

Ernest Hemingway, the author of The Sun Also Rises, was famous for his pared-down prose that required readers to make many inferences in order to understand the story. Over the course of the story, it gradually becomes clear that the protagonist, Jake, is an unreliable narrator. Readers have to infer from his oblique phrasing that the reason that he so strongly dislikes Robert Cohn is because he is jealous of Robert’s relationship with Brett, whom Jake is in love with. Readers can only grasp this gradually, as it becomes clear that Jake’s descriptions of Robert are increasingly petty and inaccurate because of his own bias.

Inferences in The Charioteer

The Charioteer is a novel by Mary Renault about a young man named Laurie Odell. Because the book features gay relationships, Renault had to be careful about what she wrote so as to avoid censorship. The result is ambiguous scenes between characters where readers have to make inferences as to what is happening. For example, Ralph Lanyon says to Laurie Odell when the two are in school together,

”That’s all, goodbye. What is it, then? Come here a moment… Now you see what I mean, Spud. It would never have done, would it? Well, goodbye.”

Readers who are paying close attention will infer that the ellipsis in the dialogue is supposed to indicate a kiss between the two characters, though it is never stated outright.

Inferences in Othello

Iago, the antagonist in Othello, does everything in his power to convince Othello that Desdemona is being unfaithful to him with Cassio. In Act III, Iago starts trying to turn Othello against Desdemona:

”Othello: Was not that Cassio parted from my wife?

Iago: Cassio, my lord? No, sure, I cannot think it

That he would steal away so guiltylike,

Seeing your coming.”

Audiences can infer from this exchange that Iago is lying, because readers know that Cassio and Desdemona are not having an affair. They can further infer that Iago is a manipulative villain who is only concerned with his own success, to the detriment of the lives of others.

Inference Synonyms

There are several literary devices that can include or require inferences without being themselves inferences or consisting solely of information to infer. One ”infer” synonym is a syllogism; another is a partial syllogism. Red herrings are also related to inferences in literary works.

Syllogism and Partial Syllogism

A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that includes two or more pieces of evidence that lead to a logical conclusion. Unlike an inference, it does not require readers to develop a conclusion independently. A famous example of a syllogism is the one associated with Socrates:

• All men are mortal.
• Socrates is a man.
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

A partial syllogism provides somewhat less information, so it does require readers to infer some part of an argument. One or more of an argument’s premises will be outright stated, but at least one more will remain unstated. The conclusion to the argument is stated. Readers must infer the unstated argument and decide for themselves whether it is a valid one. For example:

• Socrates is a man, therefore he is mortal.

The argument that all men are mortal is unstated but readers can infer it based on their own understanding of the world.

Red Herring

A red herring relies on deception: it is a literary device in which a piece of information will lead audiences to infer information that turns out to be incorrect. For example, in a mystery story, Character A’s fingerprints may be found at the crime scene. While audiences might then infer that Character A was the murderer, this may turn out to be a red herring: maybe Character A was framed by Character B.

How to Make Inferences

When learning how to make literary inferences, it is important to follow a simple, logically consistent model, sometimes called a ladder of inference. Making an inference involves reviewing background information, asking questions about the work, make predictions, and then drawing a logical conclusion.

Making inferences requires making some assumptions as well, like the assumption that there can be multiple correct answers to a single question and the assumption that information presented by the author is relevant.

Inference Meaning in Other Subjects

Making inferences can be useful in subjects other than English literary analysis. There may be a different inference meaning in some subjects depending on how inferences need to be used. Other subjects where inferences are important include math, science, language arts, and social studies.

Inferences in Math

In the study of mathematics, inferences are evaluated and developed based on numerical data. Particularly in advanced mathematics, it becomes important to make inferences that illuminate connections between different concepts. When developing mathematical proofs, for example, inferences allow mathematicians to understand how one part of a proof gives evidence for another part. Rules of inference in mathematics have particular names like ”disjunctive syllogism” depending on what arguments they make.

Inferences in Science

In science, inference is often contrasted with observation. The two concepts are similar, but they are not the same. The role of observation vs inference depends on what stage of an experiment or study is being performed. Observations are factual descriptions, while inferences are explanations of the meaning of data. Both are essential to scientific study. It is especially important that scientists keep track of when it is appropriate to use observation and when inference is required.

Inferences in Language Arts

When learning a new language, inference can be an extremely helpful tool. Making connections between words and ideas is a great way to improve one’s understanding of a language. Of course, it is important to make inferences but not to make too many assumptions, as languages tend to be full of tricks.

Someone who is learning Spanish might already know that the words for ”one” and ”two” are ”uno” and ”dos.” If that person saw a Spanish phrase that said ”uno, dos, tres,” it would be reasonable to infer that ”tres” is probably the word for ”three” in Spanish based on the written evidence and the similarity between the English and Spanish words for ”three.”

Inferences in Social Sciences

In the social sciences, inferences are used to make connections about the past and to predict future events based on patterns, symbols, and more. If a sociologist has population data for part of a country but not for all of it and has a reasonable idea of how many cities and populated areas there are in a country, they may be able to infer the approximate population of the country from the existing data even if they do not have access to the specific population figure.

Lesson Summary

Inferences are logical conclusions drawn from available information. While they are useful in many disciplines, they are of particular importance in literary analysis. Sometimes, making inferences means looking for the intended meaning in a story. When making inferences, readers should use a combination of their own knowledge, the historical and cultural context of a work, and the background of the author for reference. The process of making inferences involves considering background information, asking questions, making predictions, and finally drawing conclusions.